ULI358U-AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY
Chapter 1: Actors and Institutions in U.S. Foreign Policy Making
Primary Actors and Institutions in U.S. Foreign Policy Making
There are various actors that are important in the making of U.S. foreign policy. Whereas the president is bestowed upon with more power and influence in foreign policymaking than s/he is in domestic policy making, and despite the fact that they may make foreign policy, especially in times of crisis, almost all foreign policy decisions require a formal congressional role for implementation.
The President
The president and his/her chief advisers are the principal architects of U.S. foreign policy. In fact, the president is the Commander-in-Chief of the military and nominates and appoints ambassadors and other public ministers. The president also has broad powers to manage the foreign policy priorities of the government. S/he can issue rules, regulations, and instructions called executive orders, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies but do not require approval of the United States Congress.
The president’s personality and personal interest in foreign policy are important factors in determining how much control s/he would like to have in America’s relations with other entities around the world. For example, whereas Abraham Lincoln showed great interest in military and foreign strategy the American Civil War (1861– 1865), Woodrow Wilson did not really show any interest in foreign affairs until when the important end-of-war treaties were being signed following World War I. Similarly, whereas some presidents such as Franklin D. Roosevelt worked closely with his advisors and generals during World War II, Lyndon B. Johnson managed a lot of the details about the Vietnam War to himself and had a very tight personal control over the military operations.
The U.S. Congress
The U.S. Congress is a bicameral legislative institution with 100 senators serving in the Senate and 435 state representatives serving in the House of Representatives. These two bodies of Congress share full legislative power. Whereas the Senate has exclusive authority to approve– or reject–presidential nominations to executive and judicial offices the House possesses the sole authority to impeach federal officials and, in the case of indecisive Electoral College results, to elect a president.
Finally, Congress has broad authority to conduct investigations into particular foreign policy or national security concerns. In 2007, with Congress under Democratic control, several congressional committees launched inquiries into the conduct of the Iraqi war and the more general operations of the intelligence and defense communities. More recently, a Republican majority Congress began its investigation on the 2012 attack on U.S. diplomatic facilities in Benghazi, Libya and the alleged failure of Hillary Clinton, the then Secretary of State, to respond to these attacks in a timely manner.
The Bureaucracy
Many crucial foreign policy decisions are made within the bureaucratic agencies of the U.S. administration. Of particular significance here are the departments of State and Defense, as these two bureaucracies are at the center of the permanent staff within the government devoted to foreign policy. Very briefly, the State Department has charge of diplomatic efforts, and the Department of Defense prepares and operates the military. In addition to the departments of State and Defense, the Department of Treasury, the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency play significant roles in U.S. foreign policy making.
The Department of State
Today, the State Department has a large corps of diplomats known for their specialized expertise, and “leads America’s foreign policy through diplomacy, advocacy, and assistance by advancing the interests of the American people, their safety and economic prosperity (The U.S. Department of State).” The department’s primary responsibility is to staff diplomatic missions abroad and carry out the directives of the president in diplomacy.
The Department of Defense
In short, the Defense Department provides “the military forces needed to deter war and ensure American’s national security (The U.S. Department of Defense).” This department is by far the largest and most expensive of all the executive-branch department of the U.S. government, with a budget of nearly $720 billion. Currently, the Defense Department houses four national intelligence services
• the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), • the National Security Agency (NSA), • the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), and • the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), which work under its supervision.
The National Security Council (NSC)
The National Security Council (NSC) is the president’s principal forum for considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors and cabinet officials. The NSC was created under President Truman in 1947, and since then, the Council’s two main functions have been to advise and assist the President on national security and foreign policies and to serve as the president’s main arm for coordinating these policies among various government agencies.
The Department of Treasury
In addition to the bureaucracies mentioned above, the Department of Treasury plays an important role in protecting U.S. national interests and extending American power around the globe. In particular, the Treasury Department “protects and supports U.S. economic
prosperity by strengthening the external environment for U.S. growth, preventing and mitigating global financial instability, and managing key global challenges (The U.S. Department of Treasury).”
Together with Congress, the Department of Treasury has “the responsibility of setting the rules that govern the taxation of foreign income earned by U.S. corporations and negotiates international tax treaties and international tax information exchange agreements with the aim of helping clean up the international financial system (The U.S. Department of Treasury).”
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), created in 1947, is tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence. The CIA is the only agency authorized by law to carry out and oversee covert action at the behest of the President (The Central Intelligence Agency). The agency’s main goals are “to preempt threats and further US national security objectives by collecting intelligence that matters, producing objective all-source analysis, conducting effective covert action as directed by the President, and safeguarding the secrets that help keep [the United States] safe (Ibid.).”
Secondary Actors and Institutions in U.S. Foreign Policy Making
As time becomes less restricted, the environment for different actors to participate in the decision making process becomes more pluralistic, paving the way for secondary actors in U.S. foreign policy making to become more influential. Therefore, a good understanding of which interest groups become more important and when in U.S. foreign policy and how public opinion shapes U.S. leaders’ decision making process is crucial for understanding the main forces behind current policies of the United States in the world.
Interest Groups and Think Tanks
Although the president, Congress, and different bureaucracies of the U.S. government are the main makers of U.S. foreign policy, there are unofficial players who possess varying degrees of influence, depending on their prestige, their reputation, their socio-economic standing, and the party and ideology that are dominant in a given moment. Among these unofficial foreign policy players are the interest groups. A foreign policy interest group is an advocacy group that seeks to directly or indirectly influence their government’s foreign policy about an issue or toward different states.
In foreign policy, we can distinguish at least three types of interest groups (Lowi et al. 2017):
1. Economic interest groups, 2. Ethnic- or nationalorigin interest groups, and 3. Humanitarian interest groups.
These interest groups affect foreign policy by framing foreign policy issues, offering information and analysis and monitoring the policy making process and reacting when possible foreign policy decisions are considered to be not serving their interests.
Similar to interest groups, the role of think tanks in the United States is important in the formulation of foreign policy. Think tanks, which are independent policy research institution, have helped shape U.S. global engagement. The main function of think tanks in U.S. foreign policy is to “think” and to produce ideas and advice for foreign policy decision makers specifically based on research and informed judgment (Little 2016).
Among the most significant U.S. think tanks who supply experts are
1. The Brookings Institution, 2. The RAND Corporation, and 3. The Center for Strategic and International Studies.
Think tanks do not only advance ideas and options for policy, and advocate for certain policies but they also supply a ready pool of experts for employment in government (Little 2016). In addition, think tanks convene highlevel discussions and educate both U.S. citizens about the world and policy makers in Washington D.C.
Public Opinion and the Press
The issue of public opinion and its influence in foreign policy has been a matter of dispute among scholars of different schools of thought. There is a clear disagreement about the nature of public opinion, as well as the channels through which public opinion influences foreign policy making more effectively.
Today, with advanced information technology, American people are unquestionably better informed on matters concerning foreign affairs. Furthermore, the 9/11 attacks and the US invasions of, first, Afghanistan, and then Iraq impacted the lives of many Americans. Immediately following the 9/11 attacks, there was rarely any doubt that Americans had a broad consensus in both parties that sustained engagement and using force was necessary to protect U.S. interests. That consensus is more fragile today.
Here we see another actor that becomes important in U.S. foreign policy making: the press. In issues related to foreign policy, the press not only serves as a source of information for policy makers but it also provides a forum for debate on foreign policy issues. By focusing on certain foreign policy issues instead of others, the press also functions as an agenda-setter.
The press in the U.S. has always been more than a simple observer or neutral reporter when it comes to foreign policy. As the case of the Washington Post illustrates, the press can sometimes act as an active participant. In many
cases, the press acts as a “watchdog” of the government, looking for government accountability in foreign policy decisions.
U.S. Foreign Policy Doctrines and Instruments
American foreign policy usually shows swings as a result of the professed doctrines of presidents. Doctrines are meant to reflect national interest from the perspective of the administration in power, and they comprise the main goals and attitudes of the United States foreign affairs as outlined by presidents. In addition, any government applies certain instruments, or tools, in implementing foreign policy.
Presidential Doctrines
In general, doctrines guide decision making, but they may not always determine behavior in specific instances because as discussed before, foreign policy decisions in the United States are constrained by different factors. In addition, presidents are advised by various individuals and agencies who may provide different rationale for taking or not taking a specific action.
Among the best well-known and historically most significant presidential doctrines are:
The Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine deeply affected the United States’ foreign policy relationship with Latin American countries.
The Truman Doctrine: The 1947 Truman Doctrine was one of the main pillars of the U.S’s response to the increasing power of the Soviet Union, not only in Europe but also in the Middle East.
The Eisenhower Doctrine: The Eisenhower Doctrine clarified the American commitment to use military force in order to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of these states.
The Nixon Doctrine: The Eisenhower Doctrine came to a halt in 1969 when President Richard Nixon put forth his administration’s foreign policy doctrine, which is known as the Nixon Doctrine.
The Carter Doctrine: The Carter Doctrine, which came following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, was based on the principle that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Gulf region of the Middle East.
The Reagan Doctrine: The foreign policy of the Reagan administration from 1981 to 1989 was characterized by a strategy of “peace through strength.” In his State of the Union address in 1985, President Reagan defined some of the key concepts of this foreign policy, establishing what came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine. The doctrine served as the foundation for the Reagan administration’s support of those who were fighting against the Soviet- supported aggression.
The Bush Doctrine: The Bush Doctrine advocated preventing terrorism through active intervention in foreign countries, including pressuring or even invading foreign countries and using military force against terrorists where they live and train. The doctrine also advocated maintaining an omnipotent military.
US Foreign Policy Instruments
In foreign policy, an instrument, or a tool, helps policy makers to implement the decisions they formulate. In other words, a specific decision with regard to U.S.’s relations with foreign entities is reflected in policy implementation through an instrument. There are four important foreign policy instruments that the United States use. These are
1. Diplomacy: Diplomacy is believed to be the art or practice of conducting international relations. In the context of U.S. foreign policy, diplomacy intends to promote national values or interests by peaceful means. 2. Alliances and international organizations: The United States has effectively used alliances and international organizations, most prominently NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and the United Nations (the UN) as important instruments of foreign policy. 3. Economic aid and sanctions: The third instrument that is important in U.S. foreign policy is the use of economic aid and sanctions. The United States provides nearly $30 billion in economic assistance to other countries. Economic aid is used as an incentive in many cases, and much of the American aid seeks to promote American security interests in different parts of the world. 4. Military force: The final foreign policy instrument that the United States use in foreign policy is military force. The United States has the world’s strongest military, with army, navy, marine and air force personnel spread around the world. In addition, The United States spends nearly as much on its military establishment as the rest of the world combined.