popular, inspired several psychologists and gave rise to Introduction many studies, as well as theories about personality.
Personality is one of the most important and intriguing concepts in psychology. In this chapter, we will touch The Structure of Personality
upon how psychologists define and assess personality, the Before understanding the structure of personality, first we nature vs. nurture debate on personality, and the most need to explain the structural model of the mind. popular theoretical approaches to personality: Psychoanalytic theory represents the mind as an iceberg, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic, behavioral, social- which is composed of three layers. The first layer is the cognitive, cognitive, humanistic, and trait approach. conscious part. It is the top of the iceberg, the visible part, meaning that the information in our conscious layer of the Defining and Measuring Personality mind is available to us. However, the capacity of the
Personality is a psychological construct that characterizes conscious mind is limited and it is not possible (or our relatively enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and necessary) to be aware of all the information in our minds. acting, which is unique to us and differentiates us from We keep information such as what we have done last other people. Personality is the psychological mechanism summer, or what we ate yesterday, or the meanings of the that organizes how people perceive and interact with their words we know in the preconscious layer of the mind. environment, so that their thoughts, feelings, and The preconscious is larger than the conscious, as it keeps behaviors occur in accordance with each other. more information. At the very bottom of the iceberg there How we define personality certainly influences how we is the unconscious layer, which has the largest area, measure it. Considering that there are various theoretical meaning that the amount of information it holds is approaches to personality, our perspective inevitably inconceivable.
determines our method of assessment. Specifically, Psychoanalytic theory depicts Id, Ego and Superego as the psychologists decide which questions to ask and which three basic dynamic structures of personality. Id involves factors to focus on the most by taking into account their biological impulses, drives and motives. Superego theoretical orientations. Hence, it should be of no surprise represents moral rules, social norms and values. Ego, that there are various methods and tools for personality which functions at the conscious and preconscious level. assessment in psychology.It is possible to classify these Ego operates according to the reality principle. tools under three general categories: subjective measures of personality, objective measures of personality, and Defense Mechanisms
projective tests. Defense mechanisms are, in general, normal, automatic, and unconscious responses that are generated by the ego. Nature vs Nurture Debate on Personality The way that the ego solves a conflict and the defense The claim that our personality is biologically determined mechanism that is utilized might vary from situation to is a long-standing and widely-accepted theory in situation, and from person to person. personality psychology. Relying on factor analysis, Eysenck and his wife Sybil developed the Eysenck There are ten most common defense mechanisms: Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and suggested that Suppression, repression, regression, reaction formation, personality could be understood in terms of three projection, rationalization, displacement, denial, dimensions: neuroticism versus emotional stability, intellectualization, and sublimation.
extraversion versus introversion, and psychoticism versus Psychosexual Development impulse control. Apart from Eysenck’s studies, 20th and Psychoanalytic theory proposes that personality develops 21st century research modified how we conceive in accordance with the sexual development. Psychosexual personality, suggesting that both biological and development begins at infancy, follows through five environmental factors shape our characteristics, and stages, and lasts into adulthood. The stages (i.e., Oral, neither shall be ignored. In order to specify how much Anal, Phallic, Latency and Genital) are consecutive, contribution each has on the personality, researchers meaning that every child goes through these stages in the generally conducted twin studies. In this way, the same order. In each stage, the psychic energy (libido) is similarities are attributed to the shared genetic makeup located at a different erogenous zone and looks for a while the differences are attributed to the environmental satisfaction at that zone. Hence, the conflict arising at each factors, especially if the twins were raised apart. stage is specific to itself, having unique contributions to Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Approaches the personality. The child’s needs and expectations vary in to Personality each stage. Failure to meet those needs or over-satisfying them results in the fixation of the libido at the erogenous Among personality theories, Freud’s psychoanalytic zone of that stage. theory is one of the most influential, and the most controversial. As a result of his studies, he developed a Psychodynamic Approach and Neo-Freudians comprehensive explanation about the organization of Neo-Freudians accepted the basic notions of human mind and personality. His works, which are still psychoanalytic approach. However, they mainly discussed
the generalizability and universality of Oedipus complex understanding how behavior changes through learning and and libido. Rather than theorizing personality in conditioning principles. Accordingly, he suggested that psychosexual terms, they focused more on the role of the there are two kinds of behavior: respondent and operant conscious mind and non-sexual motives. In this section we behavior. will introduce the main ideas of six Neo-Freudian In addition to the theory of operant-conditioning, other psychologists: Karen Horney, Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred learning models are also noteworthy for understanding Adler, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm, and Erik how environment contributes to the patterns of behavior, Erikson. that we call personality. Albert Bandura’s social-learning Karen Horney basically opposed the assumption that theory is one of them, which suggests that the behavior personality is shaped through the roles of aggressive and can be learned through observing others. sexual impulses. Rather, she highlighted the effect of interpersonal relations and social factors on the Social Cognitive Approach to Personality
development of personality. Bandura asserts that, when we decide how to behave
Carl Gustav Jung mainly criticized the theory of according to our expectations, we feel some control over psychosexual development in the sense that the theory our environment. However, he claims that we are in a gave an excessive emphasis on aggressive and sexual constant interaction with our environment. All the instincts. Rather, Jung suggested that the primary individual variables such as cognitions and personality emphasis should be given to the concept of unconscious. influence and are being influenced by the situational factors, which in turn shape the behavior. Bandura calls Alfred Adler thought that the conscious efforts (rather this relationship between the individual and the than unconscious forces) play a more significant role on environment reciprocal determinism. Accordingly, your the personality and behavior. He later developed the preferences (such as the books you read, the music that theory of Individual Psychology and the most important you prefer to listen, and the people that you make friends term in his theory is Inferiority Complex. with) give information about your personality, as they are Harry Stack Sullivan’s views diverged from that of most probably shaped in parallel with your expectations.
Freud’s especially in the sense that Sullivan gave a special Cognitive Approach to Personality emphasis on the role of interpersonal relations (especially Cognitive theory basically claims that how we think, the relations with significant others) in shaping one’s perceive, and give meaning to the events in our personality. Moreover, he suggested the term environment modify our behaviors, emotions, and personafication: one’s mental representations of ultimately our personality. These interpretations are herself/himself and other people. subjective, and reflect our personal experiences as well as German psychologist Erich Fromm argued that the most our personality characteristics. Hence, individual anxiety provoking issue for the individuals is freedom, as differences derivate from personal constructs of external it leads to feelings of loneliness and powerlessness. As a events and in order to understand personality, examining former psychoanalyst, Fromm also proposed that one’s how we interpret the events is more important than the struggle to deal with the anxiety shapes the personality. actual events themselves.
Erik Erikson was a German-born American psychoanalyst. Humanistic Approach to Personality Rather than sexual development, Erikson was more Humanistic approach differentiates from other interested in how socialization contributes to the perspectives in the sense that, it doesn’t focus on flaws personality. Hence, he named his theory as psychosocial and weaknesses of human beings. Instead, humanistic development that lasted life-long. theory highlights the positives of mankind like dignity,
Behavioral Approach to Personality free will, and responsibility, claiming that every individual possesses an inherent worth despite the behaviors might The Psychoanalytic approach mainly describes the innate not be occasionally positive. The approach relies on the dynamics of the personality structure. On the contrary, idea that individuals strive for actualizing their full behavioral approach is not scientifically interested in what potentials. Being psychologically healthy requires gaining is happening inside the mind. It is rather concerned with self-awareness and taking responsibility of one’s actions. only what is observable – the behavior and how situational On the other hand, psychological disturbances occur when determinants shape the behavior. In fact, the influence of the person experiences an obstacle to the self- environment is the most prominent feature of the improvement. The humanistic theory gives a special behavioral approach. Behaviorists did not provide a emphasis to the present rather than focusing on the past specific theory on personality, as they applied learning childhood experiences or predicting the future. Therefore, principles to all behavior, including personality. here and now is one of the most important concepts of
B. F. Skinner is one of the featured theorists of the humanistic theory. behavioral approach. Following the works of Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson he dedicated his research on
Abraham Maslow and Carl Ransom Rogers are the two Later, several researchers examined both Cattellian prominent humanistic theorists that attempted to variables32 and the phenotypic vocabulary30, converging understand personality in order to improve the overall upon five factors. Hence the model was labelled as the satisfaction of individuals. Abraham Maslow’s noteworthy Five-Factor Model (FFM). These factors (or Big Five contribution to humanistic psychology includes the Traits) are; concepts of self-actualization and the hierarchy of needs. Self-actualization means that every individual is in a • Neuroticism (N), constant struggle of achieving their full potential, and this • Extraversion (E), is what makes life meaningful for human beings. The most • Conscientiousness (C), prominent characteristic of self-actualized people is self- • Agreeableness (A), and awareness. When people improve their self-awareness, • Openness to Experience (O).
they are mostly aware of the reasons and motives behind their actions. However, Maslow suggests that one cannot achieve self-actualization before meeting certain needs, which are organized in a hierarchical pyramid system: the hierarchy of needs.
Self-actualization was the key concept in Carl Ransom Rogers theory as well. Rogers suggested that a self- actualizing person is fully functioning, that is s/he owns certain characteristics that contribute to a healthy psychological well-being.
Trait Approach to Personality
The trait approach to personality is basically concerned with understanding individual differences. However, the theory doesn’t aim to specify and predict the individual differences at the behavioral level. In fact, trait approach emerged to study the variations among individuals that lead to consistent cognitive, emotional and behavioral patterns, which are traits. Accordingly, the model’s assertion is to depict the systematic nature and core characteristics of individual differences26. You’ll remember from Hans Eysenck that the traits are dimensional, rather than categorical, meaning that each person possesses all the dimensions in varying degrees.
One of Wittgenstein’s students, Austin, as a philosopher of ordinary language, proposed that “Our common stock of words embodies all the distinctions men have found worth drawing, and the connections they have found worth marking, in the life-times of many generations: these surely are likely to be more numerous, more sound, since they have stood up to the long test of the survival of the fittest” (1970, p.181 as cited in28). In parallel with Austin’s suggestions, Sir Francis Galton (1884) was the first to recognize the lexical hypothesis, indicating that all individual differences are encoded in the natural languages almost all around the world (as cited in29). Being stimulated from Sir Francis Galton’s early hypothesis, Allport & Odbert (1936) conducted their pioneering study in which they investigated the second edition of Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary and reduced 4,500 trait names from a list of 18,000 adjectives to make the language more manageable (as cited in30) which later formed the basis of the original factor analytic study of Raymond Cattell31. Cattell extended Allport and Odbert’s trait list and after conducting thorough investigation he ended up with 16 personality factors or traits (Cattell, 1947 as cited in25).