KYT102U-INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Chapter 5: Digital Governance
Introduction
Economic and political crises and also technological advancements in the last quarter of the 20th century led to the emergence of new administrative paradigms. The decline in the importance of the welfare state, starting in the mid-1970s, led to the emergence of the ‘New Public Management (NPM)’ and ‘Governance’ movements with the New Right ideology in the 1980s. At the heart of these paradigms, which have a common ground, are the claims of the inefficiency and inadequacy of traditional public administration in meeting the needs of society. New Public Management is an approach that sees downsizing the government and emphasizing business principles in public administration as an appropriate approach. The failure of the reforms made within the scope of NPM to achieve the desired success has led to the emergence of new approaches in public administration. As one of these, governance is the administrative approach with a participative way and interaction.
In contrast, information and communication technologies have started to make significant progress and development since the beginning of the 2000s. In particular, the ‘Web 1.0’ technology, which allowed people to engage in only one-way activities such as listening and watching in the 1990s, reached the ‘Web 2.0’ dimension in the 2000s. This dimension enabled people to interact among each other and produce and share information. By the 2010s, the government and administrative structure gained a digital dimension with new technologies such as social media, cloud computing systems, open data, and big data. Digitalization is converting information or data into a digital format or using digital technologies to automate or simplify processes.
What is Governance and What is Digitalization?
Advanced information and communication technologies have changed the world. As a result, the changes in the economic and social fields began to affect the functioning of governments.
Governance
To better understand the concept of governance, it is necessary first to understand the context in which it arose. Although governance was re-formulated by international organizations in the 1990s, its paradigm is based on public administration reform practices that took place after the 1970s. After the 1973-1974 oil crises, the welfare state and its interventionist policies were held responsible for the stagnation in the 1980s. In this period, the state’s inefficiency, clumsiness, and inability to respond quickly to problems caused a search for new paradigms.
During this period, the ‘New Public Management (NPM)’ and ‘Governance’ movements began to gain importance. Although these paradigms have a common foundation, they are different. New Public Management is an administrative approach emphasizing market-based principles and techniques in the public sector. The main aim of NPM is to
make state institutions more efficient and effective by applying management practices similar to those in business, such as performance-based budgeting and using performance criteria to measure success. On the other hand, governance refers to creating and implementing rules and decisions for a group or organization.
Public governance is concerned with reforms that have led to more effective markets and networks rather than hierarchies and bureaucracy. Theories and practices related to governance have led to the emergence of hybrid (a combination of market-based and non-profit organizations) administrative regulations, blurring the boundaries between the state and its environment (Oliveira & Franklin, 2019). While the NPM focuses on using business-like practices to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of public sector organizations, governance is concerned with the general decision-making and problem-solving process within an organization or group.
The concept of governance was delivered with the effects of the World Bank. The World Bank defined governance with four aspects in the 1992 governance report: 1) public sector management; 2) accountability; 3) legal framework for development; and 4) transparency and information (World Bank, 1994: 3). The aim is to create rules and institutions that provide a predictable and transparent framework for the conduct of public and private sector affairs and encourage accountability for economic and financial performance. Also it needs to be defined as good governance, as a developed version of the governance. The European Commission has defined good governance as a style of governance that involves the use of political powers at the European level, particularly the principles of participation, accountability, transparency, consistency, and effectiveness, integrated with the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality.
The fundamental principles of good governance are participation, transparency, accountability, effective and efficiency, supremacy of law, strategic planning, sustainability and participation. The reason for presenting the regulation in a circular shape as shown in Figure 5.1 on page 92 of the textbook is that each principle is complementing each other. In other words, the advancement of technology has facilitated access to information. Increased access to information may enable more active participation for citizens. In this regard, increased participation supports transparency, effective decision-making processes, accountability, and the rule of law. Therefore, good governance refers to achieving consensus or at least majority decisions on social priorities and goals.
Digitalization
Information and communication technologies, which began to develop in the 1970s and have continued to evolve since then, have created an environment with more and faster information flow, where different ideas are raised, and demands change. In particular, the World Wide Web
(WWW) created a major revolution in communication in 1989.
Web 1.0 was a one-way (monologue) bridge for communication between computers. This web technology, used between 1995 and 2000, was not hardware or colorful and dynamic like today, it was only document oriented. In the early 2000s, as people’s need for information increased, developments in web technology also increased.
With the development of web 2.0, a new era on the Internet began, and technologies and applications such as XML, API, AJAX, RSS, blog, etc., were developed due to needs such as e-Mail, phone applications, and messaging. In other words, popular websites such as Wikipedia, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and Instagram emerged, and mobile access to these websites has significantly increased. In 2010, advances in various applications such as discovery, integration, automation, and data content definition led to web 3.0. Web 3.0 is the Semantic Web technology, allowing us to access Web information more easily and quickly. Therefore, it can be considered as a personalized web.
Starting in 2020, Web 4.0 technology, which has been accepted, has put artificial intelligence and augmented reality technology at the forefront. The expectation of the connection between people and devices based on emotional interaction is considered Web 5.0 technology. This technology defines a personal assistant with which you can communicate constantly. Web 5.0 presents the Web as a tool controlled by humans that uses algorithms to personalize, improve, and act on behalf of an individual. On the other hand, it is assumed that in the future, Web 6.0 will also have the distinctive features of autonomous, independent intelligence.
Mobile networks are divided into first-generation and second-generation concepts. 1G is based on analog transmission techniques, while 2G is the birth of digital technology. 3G is the introduction of systems such as voice, photo, and interactive games into our lives. 4G is a network currently used worldwide, with faster data transfer and capacity than previous ones. 5G provides mobile services with higher speed, higher reliability, and energy efficiency.
5G technologies are generally dealt with public administration in issues such as disasters or emergency monitoring and security. For example, using drones and robots in disaster areas; using artificial intelligence to prevent the spread of epidemics such as COVID-19, ensure safety, and manage emergencies correctly; monitoring radioactively contaminated areas in the oceans; detecting temperature, wind speed, and wind direction to monitor forest fires; and ensuring security in closed areas such as stadiums or concerts are some examples of the use of 5G technologies in the public sector.
Digitalization has led to the digitalization of processes and the delivery of public services, resulting in the redefinition of institutions, structures, and relationships with citizens. The online delivery of services has removed barriers
between citizens and the state. Now, citizens can more quickly access services without any time or location constraints and without going to any public institutions. In summary, the development and transformation of technology make it possible to improve services and implement citizen-oriented management.
From e-Government to d-Government
The concept of e-Government, which is short for electronic government, refers, in a narrow sense, to the use of information and communication technologies in the state’s functioning, service delivery, and formulation of policy processes. In a broader sense, e-government involves:
• Modernization of government processes and affairs. • Access by citizens to information and communication technology-based public services without time and location constraints. • Enabling citizens, public officials, and businesses to participate in the production and consumption of services. • Making service delivery and government management more efficient, effective, and economical. • Increasing both citizen participation and interaction with citizens.
The development process of e-Government can be traced back to the 1980s. In these years, the widespread adoption of the effective, efficient, and economic state motto in the administrative field, combined with technological developments, began to transform the traditional state process. Some public services in the United States were first offered online in 1985. The first example in this context is the tax collection and tax return filing offered by the Internal Revenue Service over the Internet. With the development and widespread use of the Internet, the number and quality of public services offered electronically also increased.
e-Government applications vary among countries due to different factors such as human resources capacity, technical capacity, and social inclination. For this reason, international organizations such as the OECD, UN, and EU have developed various measures and indexes to measure the progress of public administration and society in digital skills. For example, the UN has been examining the progress made by member states in e-Government development since 2001.
Today, we have reached a stage where all data is shared on common platforms, services have become autonomous, and all business and transactions are accelerated and simplified with integrated service delivery. This transformation is illustrated in Figure 5.4 on page 97 of the textbook. According to this illustration, First period includes only a presentation of information and closed communication; Second period includes moving services to the online space; Third period includes institutions transferring their
service delivery to the virtual space; Fourth period includes increasing and strengthening the interaction of citizens with the spread of social media; Fifth period includes transition from e-Government to digital government.
Digital Government refers to the use of digital technologies and data to provide information and services to citizens. Both traditional and new public administration (electronic government) find it challenging to adapt to the network- connected governance that has arisen in the digital age. For example, in traditional public administration, the role of administrators is to ensure that rules and proper procedures are followed. This process has been updated in the new understanding of public administration to involve defining and comparing performance goals. The digital age, however, creates a mutual dependence that requires collaboration in various sectors and fields more than any previous technological transformation. On the other hand, the digital government is constantly affected by changing social, economic, and political environments and advancing technology. Therefore, the digital government represents a more citizen-centered, sustainable, innovative, and collaborative decision-making process.
Today, mobile applications, open data, social media, the Internet of things, sensors, data analytics, and more have been integrated into the working environment of the state. In other words, digital technology is confronted with tools applied to the needs of citizens, service users, public officials, and political leaders at all levels and branches of the state. This stage of technology being used by the state is referred to as the ‘digital government’
Digital Governance
The incredible speed of development of information and communication technologies has made it necessary for public administration to enter a process of reform and even to update this process continuously. Digitalization requires new approaches to governance. Governance mechanisms designed for analog realities are insufficient in the digital platform. In fact, here, the human-centered and negotiated mode of governance is faced with the automated digital governance mode. Therefore, there is a need to develop new governance approaches that consider digitalization, particularly governance mechanisms based on artificial intelligence, algorithms, and automated decision-making.
Digital governance is a system that includes faster access to the Web, mobile service delivery, tele-conferencing, and multi-channel information technology to achieve higher levels of mutual communication. Today, various sectors of the world, such as healthcare, transportation, education, government, and media are undergoing a digital transformation process.
There are four different ways of shaping digital governance:
• Digital in government: The application of digital technologies in government functions.
• Digital government services: Services provided by the government to citizens through information and government websites and portals. • Digital participation in governance: Areas designed to enable citizen participation, interactive areas for tracking progress, holding those in power accountable, and actively participating. • Governance in the Digital World: Shaping the lives of citizens and the private sector without governance mechanisms such as monopolies, regulation, taxation, or accountability.
Digital governance plays a significant role in designing a strategic framework in which a more citizen-centric public service can be provided, and more democratic state-citizen relations can emerge. In general, digital governance is a concept that goes beyond the electronic delivery of public services, including processes and relationships among citizens, government, public and private sectors, and is accepted as comprehensive in determining policy agendas. Digital governance: Refers to the digital execution of the governance process to provide digital services.
Digital governance has a broader and deeper conceptual meaning and complexity in literature. Especially before the concept was introduced to the literature, some writers attempted to define digital governance with the concepts of e-Government or e-Governance. On the other hand, some argue that these concepts are a sub-dimension of digital governance. In order to minimize this conceptual complexity, the conceptual development of digital governance is summarized first. The development of digital governance is based on two major waves. One is the waves of change in information and communication technologies that emerged in the late 1990s, and the other is the NPM paradigm also developed in the same period.
The concept of ‘Digital Era Governance’ was first used by Dunleavy et al. (2006) as a new paradigm developed in parallel with the failure of the NPM approach and the development of information and communication technologies. In addition, the authors evaluate the practices of this new paradigm that they named Digital Era Governance under three main themes: Reintegration, Needs-based Holism, and Digitization. Reintegration: brings many elements that NPM separated into institutional hierarchies together. Needs-based Holism emphasizes developing a more ‘agile’ government that can respond quickly and flexibly to changes in the social environment— for example, by providing access to information or services needed by citizens through a single website. Digitization: describes the transition to digital operations wherever possible and the change in the state-citizen relationship that comes with this transformation.
The first period of the digital age governance approach has fundamental features, including a needs-based holistic approach and digitalization and these features overlap with e-Government applications. The second period is more
related to e-Participation and e-Governance concepts. e-Governance, which constitutes the electronic dimension of governance, refers to the use of information and communication technologies for the participation of different actor groups in creating, implementing, and monitoring public policies (Yavuz, 2015). e-Governance is an approach that aims at increasing transparency and administrative skills and involves a horizontal coordination structure with networks that allow for accountability.
On the other hand, digital governance offers citizens equal rights to participate in decision-making processes that affect their living conditions and quality. e-Participation refers to using electronic and digital technologies to support and increase citizen participation in decision-making processes. This can involve various activities, such as online voting, using social media for public participation, and developing online platforms to support collaboration and dialogue between citizens and decision-makers. The aim of e-Participation is to facilitate the expression of people’s voices and enable them to play a more active role in shaping policies and decisions that affect their lives.
Social networks, smart devices, the Internet of Things, blockchain, artificial intelligence, augmented reality, cloud computing and other digital technologies are among the key features shaping the digital age governance approach. These technologies enable more efficient, effective, and inclusive governance by providing access to information and opportunities for participation, collaboration, and dialogue.