depended on their success, skills, and expertise. As a result, Introduction it was a meritocratic system (1964: 156-157).
To maintain a social life, we need various services such as security, education, and economic activities. These services Many other traditional empires controlling vast areas, such are provided by different institutions, especially in modern as the ancient Egyptian, Roman, and Ottoman Empires, and societies. Indeed, the modern state is the largest institution kingdoms also developed professional centralized in society. It consists of many organizations, such as the bureaucracies. These bureaucracies were responsible for army, various ministries, municipalities, and public the execution of policies designed by monarchs. These hospitals. Besides these public institutions, private and non- traditional empires and kingdoms did not have as many profit institutions also provide different services. All these functions as modern states have today. For instance institutions need professional and trained personnel to traditional societies did not have compulsory education, provide services to individuals. public health system and industrial functions. As a result, modern bureaucracy has more bureaucrats and functions Definitions of Bureaucracy than traditional bureaucracy.
Bureaucrats are civil servants responsible for carrying out Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy administrative functions in the government. Therefore, bureaucrats are composed of a small portion of non-elected German scholar Max Weber (1864-1920) was the leading officers, and their distinctive functions are related to the theorist of bureaucracy, and his understanding of administrative jobs in the governmental structure. This bureaucracy is still the dominant model for studying administrative group is called the bureaucracy. bureaucracy. He analyzed the rise of bureaucracy in modern society in detail and set the differences between traditional Although bureaucracy developed as an administrative and modern bureaucracies. While he called the traditional apparatus of the state in history, it started to include private, bureaucracy patrimonial, he called modern bureaucracy non-profit, and international organizations. Private, non- rational-legal bureaucracy. According to Weber, the rise of profit, and international organizations. Therefore, modern rational-legal bureaucracy was an indicator of the bureaucracy could be defined as a particular type of general rationalization process of society in Europe. organization found in public, private, and international institutions. Relying on a developmental historical perspective, Weber mentioned three types of dominations to analyze the subject On the other hand, public and private bureaucracy have of bureaucracy: Charismatic, traditional (patriarchal and some differences: While public bureaucracy is responsible patrimonial), and rational-legal. Weber, expressed to the rulers and follows the official rules, private charismatic authority as the least rational type of bureaucracy is accountable to the owners or directors of domination, while rational-legal authority as the most those private institutions and follows their organizations’ rational one. Traditional domination is in-between these regulations. Another difference is that, while public opposite extremes. Charismatic authority can be seen in bureaucracy is bound by the government’s goals and both traditional and modern societies. officially acts to serve the public interests, private bureaucracy tries to realize the interests of their These terms are ideal types in Weber’s analysis. Ideal types organizations. are not morally ideal or perfect in the literal sense. An ideal type determines the essential characteristics of an Although bureaucracy, in narrow meaning, denotes non- institution or a case under investigation and uses this term elected administrative officers, in daily usage, it evokes for scientific study as a conceptual instrument. Ideal types many pejorative images in our minds, such as “red tape, construct abstract concepts for social scientific analysis. excessive rules and regulations, a lack of individual discretion, central control, and an absence of Charismatic Authority
accountability” or “inefficiency, corruption, and Charismatic authority is the personal authority and stems government overreach.” from the unique personal qualities of leaders. Those qualities could be imagined or real. Whether real or Historical Background imagined, once people believe their leaders have
One of the most famous ancient bureaucracies in history extraordinary qualities, charismatic authority appears. appeared in China. According to Creel, China had the most developed centralized bureaucracy until modern times In political life, charismatic political leaders have an among all the traditional societies, including the Roman immense influence on their followers and can be found in Empire. For instance, the number of Chinese bureaucrats traditional, modern, democratic, and non-democratic was 130.285 around B.C. 1. The beginning of the societies. “Charismatic authority... has no particular development of the Chinese bureaucracy goes back to the historical location.” Once people believe that their political fourth century B.C. Those bureaucrats were selected by leaders have charismatic qualities, they follow their orders civil service examinations. At the same time, an imperial even if those orders are contrary to their traditions or laws. university was established in 124 B.C. in China to educate Therefore, charismatic authority is not bound by traditional
civil servants. The bureaucrats’ professional advancement
or legal rules, which provides immense power to the leader Modern bureaucracy is the product of several historical over his followers. developments, such as the rise of the modern state, industrialization, and nationalism in Europe. Patriarchal Authority Patriarchal authority was the earliest and the most primitive • Rise of the Modern State: Between the 5th and form of authority developed in small groups or extended 15th centuries, the feudal system was dominant in families. In such an extended family, the ruler was the Europe. There was not any centralized political oldest male member of the family. These societies are authority during the feudal system, even though called patriarchal. Patriarchal authority was a personal type there were kings who had little power in political of authority, and there were not any formal rules. The affairs. The Church was the most dominant relationship between the ruler (the head of the family or the institution controlling religious and political tribe) and the ruled was an informal relationship (personal affairs in feudal society. Once the Church had lost dependence). It was a chiefdom system. its power against the newly rising absolute monarchies, kings started to develop centralized Patrimonial Authority states in their countries. The centralized state tried
Patrimonial authority is also a personal type of authority; to extend its sovereignty to the whole country and the ruler has extensive power over the ruled. the population, which required both permanent Patrimonialism was common in early agricultural and and professional civil servants. traditional societies and lasted in traditional states until • Nation-State: After the French Revolution in modern society. That’s why, it was a precapitalist and 1789, the nation-state structure appeared in premodern form of authority. Europe. Nation-state and ideology of nationalism In patrimonialism, authority belongs to the ruler (or ruler expanded the need for bureaucracy, for the family/dynasty), and the ruler uses his power through a doctrine of nationalism required creating a single bureaucracy composed of slaves. Thus, the bureaucracy had nation out of many ethnic groups in the country. no legal protection or independence against the ruler. The • Capitalist Economic System: Another significant bureaucracy in patrimonial authority is entirely dependent factor in the development of modern bureaucracy on the ruler and has no independent power. The country was the Industrial Revolution which led to the also belongs to the ruler/dynasty. development of capitalism in Europe. Capitalism was the driving force behind the rise of both According to Weber, in a patrimonial system, “the object of national and international economies, which obedience is the personal authority of the individual which increased “the need for complex and highly he enjoys by virtue of his traditional status. The organized technical public services.” As a result of all these group exercising authority is, in the simplest case, primarily factors, the modern bureaucracy began to develop based on relations of personal loyalty, cultivated through in the late 15th century. In the second half of the personal loyalty, cultivated through a common process of 20th century, the rise of the welfare state was education.” Although both patriarchal and patrimonial another significant stimulus to increase the size, authorities are nonlegal authorities, patrimonial authority is functions and complexity of modern bureaucracy. limited, to some extent, by “sacred traditions,” though this limit is not absolute. Characteristics of Rational-Legal Bureaucracy
Weber lists the structural and functional characteristics of Patrimonial authority is neither completely irrational nor bureaucracy as follows: rational. It is a transitionary form of domination. As a result, we could see rationalization in legal rules and bureaucracy • The bureaucrats are free individuals, unlike slave in traditional domination. bureaucracy in patrimonial authority. Their responsibility is limited to their offices. While Rational-Legal Authority and The Rise of Modern bureaucrats as free individuals are free to quit their Bureaucracy jobs, they can be removed under clearly specified
Weber considered rational-legal authority a modern conditions. phenomenon, for patriarchal and patrimonial authorities are • There is a clearly defined hierarchy of offices. neither completely legal nor rational. Unlike these two Each bureaucrat’s task, position, rights, and authorities, rational-legal authority “derives its legitimacy responsibilities are restricted within this from adherence to impersonal rules and universal principles hierarchical organization. that can only be found by suitable legal-rational reasoning... • The bureaucrats accept and maintain their Hence, obedience to authority rests upon a belief in the appointments freely. appropriate enactment of impersonal statutes and • Appointment to bureaucratic offices depends on regulations.” technical qualifications and the basis of objective
criteria. Thus, there are examinations to appoint bureaucrats.
• The bureaucrats are paid fixed salaries and receive Weber thought thatthe bureaucracy might be an “iron cage” pension rights. Their salaries vary according to for citizens and bureaucrats. According to Weber, the their tasks, the importance of their responsibilities, rationalization process included whole spheres of modern and their positions within the hierarchy of the society. In the bureaucracy, formalization of rules, division bureaucracy. of functions into smaller tasks, expertise, specialization, • There is a career and promotion system. Their and hierarchical organization leave the lower bureaucracy promotion rests on clearly defined rules. without any discretion in carrying out their jobs. They • Their offices are not their property, and they simply act as a small cog of a massive bureaucratic cannot use public resources for personal benefit. machine. Weber called this structure an “iron cage” in In this sense, there is a strict separation of the which bureaucrats worked. He described bureaucrats as office and the bureaucrat. Bureaucrats come and “specialists without spirit, sensualists without heart.”
go, but authority remains. Weber considered “bureaucracy as a Janus-faced • There is a systematic control and discipline system organization, looking two ways at once. On the one side, it to overview bureaucrats’ conduct. was administration based on expertise; while on the other,
Bureaucracy as an administrative apparatus is an inevitable it was administration based on discipline.”
part of all states, irrespective of their political regime. In As a rational system is based on expertise, it ensures an other words, democratic or non-democratic (totalitarian or efficient administration, yet the “disciplinary face of authoritarian), traditional or modern, all states have bureaucracy” is detrimental to both bureaucrats and bureaucracies to govern the state and meet the needs of citizens. Being a cog in the bureaucratic machine induces society. trained incapacity, timidity, and rigidity.
Essential Functions of Legal-Rational Bureaucracy Weber’s second worry stemmed from his observation of
M. Weber makes a clear and strict separation between socialist movements in his time. He thought that in a politics and bureaucracy and considers bureaucrats as socialist state, almost all the functions of social life would “simply cogs in a machine, administrators operating within be vested in the hands of ever-growing bureaucracy. Since a fixed hierarchy and according to clearly-defined and the socialists deny private property, there would not be any rational rules.” This separation determines the role of both private enterprise and no place for individuality in the fields: While politics (the government) determine general liberal sense. A socialist state would create a vast policies and legal regulations, bureaucracy is simply an bureaucracy to carry out all the functions necessary for instrument of the government in executing those policies social life. This would increase the power and authority of and laws. the bureaucracy in society. Weber argued that the ever- growing power of an immense bureaucracy would lead to a According to Heywood, in addition to the vital function of totalitarian regime and destroy individual liberties and policy implementation, the bureaucracy has three more creativity in the long run. functions due to its expertise, knowledge, and experience: Policy advice, interest articulation, and political stability. Bureaucracy in Political Thought
• Policy Advice: The bureaucracy is the primary Although Weber is credited as the earliest modern scholar source of the necessary information for the policy to analyze the subject of bureaucracy, several political design for the government. The bureaucrats, as philosophers were interested in this subject before him. J. specialists, develop expertise and accumulate S. Mill, G. W. F. Hegel, and K. Marx analyzed the information in specific administrative fields. bureaucracy in modern society from different perspectives Especially the top-level bureaucrats as senior before Weber.
officials have close contact with the politicians. G.W.F. Hegel: Idealist Approach • Interest Articulation: Bureaucrats have close German philosopher Hegel (1770-1831) analyzes contact with different social groups in policy bureaucracy within the subject of executive power. He implementation. considers civil servants as “the universal class” to represent • Political Stability: The bureaucracy, as a society’s universal or common interests. According to permanent and impartial administrative apparatus Hegel, the family, civil society, and the state are three of the state, is the instrument of “stability and different domains of social life. Each domain rests on a continuity within the political system.” different principle and serves different interests: The family
Weber’s Concerns About Bureaucracy relies on “particular altruism,” which requires subjecting Although Weber considered the rational-legal bureaucracy individual interests to the interests of the family. According as a necessary and inevitable institution for efficient to this principle, every family member prefers family administration in a complex and growing capitalist era, he interests over personal ones. Nevertheless, this altruism is had some concerns about it as well. limited to the family and does not include non-members.
Hegel’s view of bureaucracy is located within this general Post-Weberian Bureaucratic Approaches framework. He defines bureaucracy as the “universal class” Starting in the 1930s, the Weberian model has been representing and serving the universal interests of the whole questioned. In the late 1970s, New Public Management society. Thus, Hegel has the most positive and idealist view (NPM) appeared as a strong reaction to it. of bureaucracy. A common criticism of the Weberian model is as follows: J.S. Mill: Liberal Approach J. S. Mill (1806-1873) is one of the earliest political • Large bureaucracies are “inherently conservative philosophers to analyze the subject of bureaucracy and in that they are slow to change. represents the liberal approach. He discusses bureaucracy • Bureaucracy could create excessive control among in Considerations on Representative Government, rank-and-file members due to its hierarchical published in 1861. structure. • Bureaucrats tend to emphasize the rules and Mill sees bureaucracy as a necessary apparatus for an procedures rather than focusing on goal efficient government, for bureaucracy represents achievement to maintain their positions. professionalism, expertise, practical wisdom, and • Bureaucrats could abuse their authority and use it experience. On the other hand, as a realist thinker, in for personal or private interests. contrast to Hegel’s idealism, he recognizes that • In many countries, political life is polarized, and bureaucracy has some detrimental tendencies contrary to political polarization has a detrimental impact on shared interests and individual creativity. the bureaucracy which is supposed to be neutral.
According to Mill, bureaucracy poses two potential dangers • Many branches of bureaucracy have to work in a liberal democratic society: First, it might abuse its together to carry out large governmental projects, bureaucratic power. Second, it might limit the creativity of yet the top-down hierarchical structure of individuals. bureaucracy could create coordination problems.
K. Marx: Critical Approach Because of all these reasons, the bureaucracy is portrayed Marx (1818-1883) has a critical and pessimistic view of as unresponsive, incompetent, and corrupt. To overcome all bureaucracy. Marx has some remarks on bureaucracy from these problems, on the one hand, the bureaucracy has been a historical perspective, yet he does not have a full-fledged reformed within the Weberian paradigm; on the other hand, theory of bureaucracy. Indeed, Marx argues that the new bureaucratic paradigms have appeared.
bureaucracy played a positive role in the struggle against The first view aims at preventing or decreasing all these feudalism during the rise of the modern state. problems by reforming the existing bureaucracy. The
He considers modern bureaucracy an integral apparatus of second view considers the Weberian bureaucracy as an the capitalist state and thus just an instrument of the obsolete, lethargic, and unreformable giant machine by its capitalist class to exploit the working class. nature. This view is called New Public Management (NPM). Bureaucracy and Oligarchy Politics And Bureaucracy In his seminal work titled Political Parties, German-born Italian sociologist Robert Michels (1876-1936) is one of the Although bureaucracy is seen as a neutral and impartial first scholars to discuss the relationship between instrument of the state and thus separated from politics in bureaucracy and oligarchy. He analyzed this relationship theory, mutual influence could happen over each other in within a broader theoretical framework. He was an elitist practice. The bureaucracy’s task is defined as the and argued that any large-scale organization, whether implementation of policies designed by the government.
public or private, had an inevitable oligarchic tendency. To exert influence over each other, bureaucracy and politics
Michels divided society into two groups: the ruler vs. the have specific power sources. In constitutional design, the ruled, the politicians vs. the citizens, and the upper bureaucracy is just an instrument of the government and is bureaucrats vs. the lower bureaucrats. In each case, there is responsible for it. Thus, the government has controlling a minority who has power over the majority, and this authority over the bureaucracy.
smaller group makes decisions about the larger group. He The bureaucracy has the power and resources to exert argued that power concentration in the ruling group, influence over politics also. It accumulates technical society, or any large organization is inevitable. He called knowledge, expertise, and skills necessary for this tendency “Iron Law of Oligarchy” and argued that it implementing policies designed by politics. “The ability of was a “universally applicable social law.” Thus, he bureaucrats to control the nature and amount of information concludes that democracy, as defined by Abraham Lincoln policymakers receive makes bureaucrats enjoy significant as a government “by the people, for the people,” is leverage and influence on the policy outcome. impossible. Michels discussed the relationship between bureaucracy and oligarchy within this general framework.