Monetary Theory and Polıcy (ENG) — Ünite 3 Soru-Cevap

In Central Bank of the Republic of Türkiye (CBRT) website; while price stability “refers to an inflation rate low and stable enough that it would not  influence  the  decision-making processes  of economic  agents”,  financial  stability”  is  defined as  the  resilience  of an economy  to  unexpected developments that may disturb the balances in the financial system”.

In order to address these multiple and conflicting goals, central banks employed a combination of direct and indirect policy instruments alongside short-term interest rates. These additional tools included (i) required reserves and liquidity ratios, (ii) interest rate ceilings, and (iii) selected credit limits.

The main steps of this strategy involved (i) selecting an inflation target, (ii) choosing a monetary target such as reserve money, M1, or M2, which exhibited a stable and predictable relationship with inflation, (iii) determining the target growth rate for the selected monetary aggregate on a quarterly or annual basis, (iv) publicly announcing this monetary target to influence expectations and serve as a nominal anchor, and finally, (v) employing monetary policy tools to strive for the desired monetary growth rate. Essentially, this strategy was based on the quantity theory of money.

When the total demand and production level (Yt) fall below the potential output (YP), it results in a negative output gap. This signifies that the economy is producing less than its potential. Consequently, as unemployment rises above the natural rate, the inflation rate begins to decline.

Central bank policies, particularly interest rates, can influence demand and short-term production. However, the determination of the potential output level (trend) is largely driven by supply-side factors. Let us recall the production function: Y = A*(K, L), where A represents technology and labor skill, K denotes capital stock (such as machines, computers, etc.), and L represents the labor force. An increase in A signifies an improvement in productivity.

Now, how can we increase production capacity while assuming the labor force remains constant? The answer lies in enhancing skills and technology (A) and increasing investment (K). Improving labor skills and technology is contingent upon factors such as education, research and development activities, patent rights, and the maintenance of these factors often require considerable time and investment spanning several years.

Explain whether central banks can support investments? Yes, they can. Investments rely on economic stability, financial stability, confidence, and lower long-term real interest rates. All these factors are directly linked to price stability and central bank policies. Therefore, achieving high and sustainable growth rates hinges not on short-term loose monetary policy, but on price and financial stability in the medium to long term. This is why central banks prioritize price and financial stability.

The monetary policy transmission mechanism outlines how changes in monetary policy, including interest rates, impact the economy. Central bank decisions have an impact on crucial variables in financial markets, such as interest rates and exchange rates. These adjustments in financial market conditions subsequently influence aggregate demand, which encompasses consumption and investment expenditures, along with inflation. The sequence of developments from monetary policy decisions to their effects on economic indicators like output, employment, and inflation is known as the monetary transmission mechanism.

In the interest rate channel, monetary policy operates by affecting the cost of capital, which in turn influences the investment decisions of firms and the purchasing decisions of households for durable goods and housing. When the central bank raises the policy rate, longer-term interest rates also increase. This increase in the cost of capital, or borrowing cost, leads to a decrease in the demand for investment goods. For instance, when borrowing costs rise, firms tend to reduce their investments. Similarly, when interest rates increase, households tend to increase their savings and reduce their consumption of durable goods and housing expenditures. Consequently, as the consumption demand of households and the investment demand of firms decline due to higher interest rates, total demand and production also decrease.

The  concept of  “interest  rate  pass-through”  becomes  crucial. It refers to the rate and degree of responsiveness exhibited by bond markets and bank interest rates (credit and deposit rates) to changes in short-term interest rates set by monetary policy. The interest rate pass-through is a principal factor to consider as it determines the extent to which monetary policy adjustments impact the broader financial system.

According to the expectations theory, the term structure of interest rates is primarily driven by future expectations of short-term interest rates. The theory suggests that bond buyers do not have preference for specific bond maturities, as the expected returns across different maturities are considered equal. This implies that investors do not actively choose between short-term and long-term maturities based on expected returns alone.

Furthermore, the theory suggests that when different investment options offer the same expected return, there is no opportunity for arbitrage. In other words, investors cannot exploit pricing differences between bonds with different maturities to earn riskless profits. This assumption is based on the belief that financial markets are efficient and any deviations from the expectations theory would be quickly eliminated through market arbitrage.

If we assume that the central bank policy rate will remain constant in the foreseeable future, the slope of the yield curve would be slightly upward. This is because, even with a constant policy rate, as the maturity of the bonds increases, the risk premium is likely to increase. Therefore, the higher risk associated with longer-term bonds results in a slightly higher yield, leading to a slightly upward slope in the yield curve.

If the markets anticipate higher policy rates in the future, the slope of the yield curve will be positive, particularly at short maturities. This is because market participants believe that the central bank will gradually raise the policy rate over time. As the maturities of the bonds increase, the weight given to the higher expected policy rates also increases, leading to a steeper slope in the yield curve. Similarly, if the markets expect lower policy rates in the future, the slope of the yield curve will still be positive, especially at short maturities. This indicates that market participants anticipate a gradual reduction in the policy rate over time.

When the central bank tightens   monetary   conditions   by   raising   the short-term policy rate, it has a cascading effect on longer-term interest rates and equity prices. As longer-term interest rates increase, it becomes more expensive for firms to borrow and invest. The  decline  in  investment  prospects  and  the higher cost of investment lead to a decrease in Tobin’s “q” ratio, indicating a decline in the market value of firms relative to the replacement cost of capital. Consequently, the demand for investments decreases.

The decline in investment demand has a broader impact on the economy, leading to a decrease in aggregate demand. As aggregate demand declines, it exerts downward pressure on prices, resulting in a decrease in the inflation rate.

On  the  demand  side,  tightening  monetary conditions lead to an appreciation of the domestic currency, resulting in a decrease in the prices of foreign goods in terms of the domestic currency. This shift in relative prices encourages consumers to  opt  for  imported  goods  over  domestically produced goods, leading to a decline in the demand for  domestically  produced  goods.  In  the  given example, the price of German apples in Turkey is now 15 TL, while Turkish apples are priced at 20 TL. In this situation, consumers in Turkey are likely to choose the cheaper option, which is the German  apples.  Consequently,  the  demand  for imports in Turkey increases.

Furthermore, the appreciation of the domestic currency also reduces the foreign demand for domestically produced goods. Using our example, the decline in the value of the Turkish lira makes Turkish apples relatively more expensive for German consumers, resulting in a decrease in their demand for Turkish apples. This decline in export demand from Germany further contributes to the overall reduction in total exports from Türkiye. As a result, the decrease in demand for domestically produced goods has a dampening effect on inflation through the aggregate demand side. Lower demand leads to a decrease in prices, which contributes to reducing inflationary pressures in the economy.

On the supply side, the appreciation of the domestic currency, leading to a decline in
the prices of imported goods, directly impacts inflation. In the given example, the price of apples has decreased from 20 TL to 15 TL due to the appreciation of the domestic currency. This decline in prices of imported goods contributes to reducing inflationary pressures in the economy. When the prices of imported goods decrease, it
lowers the overall cost of production for businesses that rely on these imports as inputs. This reduction in production costs can lead to lower prices for domestically produced goods and services, thereby exerting downward pressure on inflation.
Therefore, the combination of decreased imported goods prices and their impact on
the overall cost of production helps mitigate inflationary pressures and contributes to price stability in the economy.

There are two ways in which monetary policy affects the net worth of borrowers’ balance sheets. Firstly,  as  the  central  bank  lowers  the  policy rate (unless accompanied by increased inflation expectations), interest rates are expected to decrease.  This creates  a  conducive  environment for increased demand for securities, leading to higher stock prices. As stock prices rise, the net worth of companies improves, enhancing their creditworthiness and facilitating their access to credit from banks.

The second effect is that many companies rely on short-term loans to finance their stocks and production costs. As interest rates decrease, the costs associated with these loans also decrease, thereby strengthening the financial position of these companies. The lower interest rates enable customers of these companies to spend more as their credit costs decrease. Consequently, the profitability  of  these  companies  improves  due to reduced interest expenses and increased sales. When assessing creditworthiness, banks typically consider the ratio of loan installments to total income. With the decrease in interest rates, this ratio also decreases, encouraging an increase in the utilization of credit.

Asymmetric information refers to a situation where one party involved in a transaction possesses more information or knowledge than the other party. In the context of credit markets, asymmetric information gives rise to two main problems:adverse selection and moral hazard. Adverse selection occurs before the transaction takes place and is characterized by incomplete information. For instance, a borrower may hide certain aspects that could potentially deter a lender from granting them a loan. If the lender is not fully aware of these hidden factors, they may unknowingly provide the loan to the borrower, resulting in adverse selection. Moral hazard, on the other hand, occurs after the transaction has occurred. It involves the borrower engaging in risky behavior or investments that increase the likelihood of defaulting on the debt. Lenders, aware of this moral hazard, may be reluctant to provide loans due to the increased risk of non-repayment. The key distinction between these two issues is that adverse selection pertains to incomplete information prior to the transaction, whereas moral hazard arises from actions taken by the borrower after the transaction has occurred.

Recognition Lags: Recognition lags occur when policymakers need time to identify the need for a change in monetary policy. Policymakers rely on economic data and indicators to assess the state of the economy and determine if any policy adjustments are necessary. This process involves data collection, analysis, and interpretation, introducing a delay in recognizing the need for policy action.

Impact Lags: Impact lags, also known as effectiveness lags or the response time of the economy, refer to the time it takes for the changes in monetary policy to affect the broader economy. Once the policy measures are implemented, their impact on various economic variables, such as interest rates, borrowing costs, consumption, investment, and inflation, will not be immediate. It may take several months or even years for the full effects of the policy changes to be felt throughout the economy.

During periods of economic growth and increased risk-taking, macroprudential measures are employed to limit the credit capacity of banks and the borrowing capacity of individuals. For example, authorities may tighten the capital adequacy ratio, liquidity ratio, or required reserve ratio for banks when the economy is operating above its potential and there is an elevated level of risk-taking. These measures are intended to curb excessive credit growth and promote a more stable financial environment.

The capital adequacy ratio represents the ratio of risk-weighted assets to capital, as determined by regulatory bodies such as the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA) in Türkiye. Banks must adhere to this ratio, which restricts their ability to expand loans.

According to the current rule set by the BRSA, banks still have the capacity to provide new loans. However, the BRSA has two options to limit the ability of banks to expand their loan portfolios: (i) increasing the capital adequacy ratio (CAR), and (ii) increasing the risk weights of loans.